The Life Well Lived Is a Life Worth Experiencing

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Ikigai: Defining the Life Worth Living

Ikigai (i-key-ga-ee) is a word that has been defined as “one’s reason for being” or “a life worth living.” This Japanese term comprises two characters – “life” (生き) and “to be worthwhile” (甲斐). The experience of ikigai is typically associated with engagement in meaningful experiences and activities to which one devotes effort, attention, and focus (Kumano, 2018). The origin of the term is traced to ikiru-kahi, itself a composite of the words “to be alive” and “worth.” Psychiatrist Mieko Kamiya (1966) is attributed as the first to popularize the term in her pioneering work Ikigai ni Tsuite (What makes our life worth living). Since then, numerous popular press books have been written about ikigai. Arguably the most popular is Ikigai: The Japanese Secret to a Long and Happy Life (Garcia & Miralles, 2016), one of 2,000 books listed on Amazon about this concept of well-being. The popularity of the concept, particularly its association with longevity, has also been featured in an episode of the 2023 Netflix documentary Live to 100: Secrets of the Blue Zones.

While ikigai has been colloquially understood as synonymous with meaning and concepts such as raison d’etre (French for ‘reason for being’), there are facets and cultural nuances to ikigai that are not evident in the Western social science and positive psychology literature. The lexicon for well-being is diverse, with many terms outside the English language reflecting culturally shaped notions of a well-lived life (Lomas, 2021). Christopher Peterson (2008, para 3) notes, “The notion of ikigai is a good reminder to positive psychologists that our science should not be an export business,” reminding us that, “…no language has a monopoly on the vocabulary for describing a good life.” While ikigai reflects a shared, universal value that people place on meaningful life experiences, it is also a concept of well-being bound to Japanese culture, shaped by the country’s unique history, customs, and culture.

Curiously, a scholarly definition of ikigai continues to elude researchers and positive psychology practitioners. The most commonly accepted definition for ikigai is represented in the widely-popularized ‘four overlapping circles’ model. This model describes the ikigai experience as a result of engaging in actions that one enjoys doing, is skilled in, can be paid for, and fulfills a need in the world. A search for the origins of this model reveals it to be the work of entrepreneur Marc Winn. While intuitively appealing, the model lacks empirical grounding to support its validity and may instead reflect Western assumptions about purpose that are based on anecdotes and personal opinion instead of research evidence. This model, often presented as a Venn diagram, may not be how the Japanese perceive and understand ikigai. Further, the numerous longitudinal studies on ikigai conducted in Japan do not adopt this model, nor measure ikigai in this manner. Scientific studies often rely on single-item measures, typically asking respondents, “Do you have ikigai in your life?” (e.g., Tanno & Sakata, 2007; Tanno et al. 2009; Sone et al. 2008; Yasukawa et al. 2018; Sumiyama et al. 2022; Okuzuno et al. 2022). Results from these longitudinal studies employing large samples (n = 14,482 to 43,391) show that ikigai decreases the risks of cardiovascular disease and contributes to longevity. Thus, while ikigai is implicitly understood within a Japanese context and reliably predicts positive health outcomes, the term lacks an evidence-based definition on which to advance well-being theory and positive psychology interventions.

Grounding the Ikigai Experience on Evidence

Recently, researchers conducted a series of grounded theory studies to derive an evidence-based definition of ikigai, employing a qualitative research approach known as grounded theory to capture the essence of the ikigai experience. The researchers sampled 27 Japanese university students and asked them to choose 10 photos on their smartphones that they felt reflected ikigai (Kono & Walker, 2019). The students were asked to caption their selected photos, and later, to describe their photos over an interview—a method known as a photo-elicitation interview (Steger et al. 2013). The grounded theory approach is well-suited for exploring and generating theories of poorly understood social phenomena such as culture (Charmaz, 2008). The photos selected by the participants were then used to guide the interview, allowing the researcher to better understand meaningful experiences that constitute ikigai in the participants’ lives. Results from Kono and Walker’s studies (2019, 2020, 2021) were then used to generate a theory of ikigai that revolves around three key elements. A review of the findings from these studies (Tee, 2023, p.50) suggests that ikigai is best defined as:

The experience of a life worth living, perceiving one’s life as affirming and vibrant. It is the experience of receiving genuine care from close relationships where one is allowed to express themselves authentically. It is an experience of life that is understandably connected to one’s past, while also motivating actions that lead to a desirable future.

The following section details the three components of this new ikigai theory.

Engaging in Life and All its Richness: Keiken (経験, けいけん) and Valued Experiences

Central to the ikigai experience is what Kono and Walker (2019) call keiken—engagement in personally-valued experiences. These experiences need not be ‘positive’ or pleasant; people feel the presence of ikigai in their lives from having experiences that elicit enjoyment, are effortful, stimulating, or comforting. Ikigai prescribes that a life well-lived is also one that comprises a wide range of valued experiences. In Kono and Walker's (2019) study, the student participants recounted experiences of studying abroad, competing in athletic events, and participating in spur-of-the-moment outings with friends as valued experiences. Results also showed that ikigai is not solely an outcome of attaining either hedonic or eudaimonic experiences (Kumano, 2018); rather, it is a mix of both. The ikigai experience seems more akin to that of a psychologically rich life—a life “characterized by a variety of interesting and perspective-changing experiences” (Oishi & Westgate, 2022, p. 790). The effortful can be enjoyable. And the challenging—once overcome—can offer coherence to one’s life story. What is important is that people willingly choose to engage in the experiences they value, and they do so in the spirit of spontaneity. The spontaneity aspect of an ikigai experience dovetails with Kamiya’s (1966) original claims—ikigai may be more practical than philosophical, but at times, it can also be perceived as irrational. A life filled with numerous valued experiences spontaneously engaged with leads to life affirmation and life vibrancy—one’s life is seen as significant and full of zest.

  • Which ones of your days, if you recall, are ones you would want to re-live again?

  • What experiences would you like to have more of?

  • Which events might you consider your keiken?

Experiencing Together, Belonging Together: Ibasho (居場所, いばしょ) and Authentic Relationships

The second component of ikigai is ibasho. While a literal translation of the term is “the place to be,” ibasho is defined as interpersonal relationships where people feel authentic, valued, and cared for (Kono & Walker, 2020). Ibasho, the interpersonal component of ikigai, contends that having close, valued relationships in which to share and experience one’s life journey adds a sense of fulfillment and meaning to one’s life. The relational aspect of ikigai differs from Western conceptualizations of meaning. In the meaning of life model, for instance, the importance of social connections is inferred indirectly, through the presence of significance or existential mattering (Martela & Steger, 2016). In Kono and Walker’s (2020) study, the Japanese students reported that their truest and most sincere relationships also allowed them to express themselves plainly. Unrestrained self-authenticity in relationships contributed to a sense of ibasho, reminding participants that they were right where they needed to be. Home, in this instance, is where your valued relationships are, not a physical location. Authenticity and openness are also arguably more important for the Japanese, who are culturally governed by the need to constantly distinguish between their private or true selves (honne) with their public or social self (tatemae; Doi, 1986). Experiencing and sharing valued experiences with those with whom one has authentic relationships leads to feelings of self-authenticity and genuine care. Ibasho reflects what is known from positive psychology research about the importance of thriving interpersonal relationships and how a sense of belongingness—a sense that one can develop and maintain positive, supportive interpersonal relationships with others (Baumeister & Leary, 1995). A sense of belongingness, and by extension, having ibasho, is a crucial element of well-being (Leary & Cox, 2008).

  • Who among your social circles do you trust, have mutual respect for, and engage in mutual sharing of experiences with?

  • Who among your family and friends do you feel a sense of belongingness with?

  • Who are the people you would consider your ibasho?

Connecting the Present with the Past, and the Future: Houkousei (方向性, ほうこうせい) and Life Directionality

The third component, houkousei, is the temporal aspect of ikigai. Houkousei is life directionality —perceiving one’s past, present, and future as being meaningfully connected rather than an accumulation of random experiences (Kono & Walker, 2021). In the grounded theory study, Kono and Walker (2021) interviewed students who reflected on past experiences such as volunteering and enrolling in mandatory academic courses. The students shared how these experiences helped connect other experiences with their career and life goals. Houkousei is related to Western conceptions of meaning in life—a meaningful life consists of coherently connected life experiences (Martela & Steger, 2016). Having a connection to one’s future goals is also related to hopeful thinking, seeing the ways and using the will to attain a desired future (Snyder, 2000). The notion of houkousei highlights, however, that ikigai stems not just from a connection to future goals. One’s defining past is also important in shaping one’s houkousei. These differences reflect cultural differences in perceptions of time between East Asians and North Americans (Gao, 2016) and the dialectical nature of non-Western cultures—particularly cognitive holism (Spencer-Rodgers et al. 2009). This manner of thinking presumes that all phenomena in the universe— our experiences, thoughts, and relationships, are all interconnected (Spencer-Rodgers et al. 2012). Having houkousei—being able to connect the dots that depict one’s life events—can help people construct a coherent narrative identity. A cogent personal story not only acknowledges one’s past but also guides one toward a hopeful future (McAdams & McLean, 2013). A coherent life leads to life legacy and life momentum—being able to see one’s past as meaningfully contributing to one’s current experiences while also perceiving one’s present experiences as leading to a desired future. A defining past and clear goals for the future contribute to houkousei and ultimately, the experience of ikigai.

  • Which key moments in your past define who you are today?

  • What can you do today that helps you attain your future goals?

  • What is the theme of your life story that offers you houkousei?

Cultivating the Life Well-Lived through Valued, Chosen Experiences

A life well lived is a life well experienced. This new conceptualization of ikigai not only complements but also extends existing understandings of how people derive meaning from their lives. It offers a culturally sensitive and nuanced view of flourishing shaped by Japanese culture. Try reflecting on your ikigai, by centering on your valued experiences, authentic relationships, and life directionality. Here is an ikigai journal you can use to guide your reflection.

  1. Start by simply going through the photos taken on your smartphone or leafing through a cherished photo album. Select up to 10 photos that depict meaningful experiences in your life.

  2. Reflect on why you selected these photos. Often, these will be photos depicting moments that fill you with a sense of meaningfulness. These are also likely to be pictures of experiences you would like to relive or revisit.

  3. Write a short reflection on these experiences while holding your selected photos in view. Use the following prompts to guide you:

    • How and why do the photos depict valued experiences in your life? How do they elicit enjoyment, effort, stimulation, comfort, or a combination of these states?

    • Are there other people in your chosen photos? Who are they, and why are they in the pictures?

    • How do these photos reflect a defining past? How do they shape your desired future?

Your photos and reflections can help you craft a connected and personally significant life story—a story of your ikigai experiences, and ultimately, a story of a life well and truly worth living.

 

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About the author | Eugene (Yu Jin) Tee (C’23) is an Associate Professor at the Department of Psychology, HELP University, Malaysia. He obtained a PhD in Management from the University of Queensland and a Master of Applied Positive Psychology (MAPP) from the University of Pennsylvania. His research work has been published in Emotion Review, The Leadership Quarterly, Asian Journal of Social Psychology, Journal of Affective Disorders, and The International Journal of Wellbeing. His latest book, The Science of Feelings, was awarded by the National Book Council of Malaysia as one of 50 Best Malaysian Titles for International Rights 2021/2022. Email him at teeyj@sas.upenn.edu